Environmental Requirements for Maritime Transport of Oil and Petroleum Products under Annex I of the MARPOL 1973/78 Convention

Document Type : ISI

Authors

1 Professor Department of Public Law, of the Faculty of Law and Political Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.

2 MA. in Oil and Gas Law, Faculty of Law and Political Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.

Abstract

Introduction
The maritime transport of oil and petroleum products has long been recognized as one of the most significant sources of marine pollution, posing complex legal, environmental, and governance challenges. With more than half of the world’s oil transported by sea, accidental and operational discharges from tankers continue to threaten the marine ecosystem, coastal resources, and human livelihoods. Against this backdrop, the international community, through the International Maritime Organization (IMO), developed the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) as the cornerstone of global efforts to prevent and control marine oil pollution. Annex I of MARPOL, specifically dedicated to the prevention of pollution by oil, establishes comprehensive technical and environmental requirements aimed at minimizing both accidental and routine discharges. It introduces mechanisms such as the Oil Record Book, segregated ballast tanks, and double-hull construction standards for tankers. These mechanisms reflect the evolution of maritime environmental law from a reactive system—focused primarily on liability and compensation—to a preventive framework grounded in technological advancement and state responsibility. However, despite the legal sophistication of MARPOL Annex I and its near-universal ratification, questions remain about the adequacy of its implementation and enforcement. Many flag States lack the capacity or political will to ensure compliance, while port and coastal States often face jurisdictional and evidentiary challenges in detecting and prosecuting violations occurring beyond their territorial waters. Moreover, disparities in national legislation, enforcement priorities, and resource allocation have resulted in uneven application of MARPOL’s standards, undermining its effectiveness as a truly global instrument.
From the perspective of international legal instruments, the MARPOL Convention also considers the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in several respects and further elaborates on the obligations set out in its articles 211, 217, and 220.
Despite its substantial positive impact on the international community and the global maritime industry, the MARPOL Convention faces significant challenges in practical implementation, particularly due to the widespread operation of vessels under flags of convenience. Such challenges can undermine the effectiveness of the Convention’s regulatory framework and its capacity to ensure consistent environmental protection across jurisdictions. This study aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of Annex I of MARPOL, evaluating both its achievements and its limitations. Moreover, it seeks to propose practical recommendations and policy measures that could enhance the Convention’s effectiveness, strengthen compliance mechanisms, and support global efforts to prevent marine oil pollution.
Methodology
This study employs a descriptive–analytical approach with qualitative legal analysis to examine Annex I of MARPOL 73/78 and the relevant articles of UNCLOS concerning the environmental obligations of flag, port, and coastal States. The sample comprises the Environmental Requirements for Maritime Transport of Oil and Petroleum Products outlined in Annex I of MARPOL, IMO documents, and selected case studies, with analytical rigor ensured through a comparison of legal texts and enforcement practices. Adopting a mixed-methods perspective, the study integrates legal analysis with empirical environmental insights to evaluate both the legal obligations and their practical implementation.
Conclusion
The prevention of marine oil pollution remains one of the core challenges for the global community and international trade. Annex I of MARPOL 73/78, together with the relevant articles of UNCLOS, establishes a comprehensive set of legal requirements that balance environmental protection with the operational realities of global shipping. However, the effectiveness of this framework largely depends on consistent enforcement by flag, port, and coastal States, as well as on the technological and institutional capacities of national authorities. Therefore, strengthening monitoring mechanisms, promoting uniform implementation, and enhancing international cooperation are essential to ensuring that MARPOL’s preventive objectives are fully achieved in practice.
 
 
 

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

منابع
بیگلر، فاطمه (1395). حقوق، وظایف و مسئولیت‌های دولت‌های عضو ضمیمة اول کنوانسیون بین‌المللی جلوگیری از آلودگی ناشی از کشتی‌ها (مارپل 78/73): بررسی موردی ایران. پایان‌نامة کارشناسی‌ارشد حقوق بین‌الملل، دانشگاه پیام نور واحد تهران.
حجازی، سیده ‌هاجر (1396). «نخستین آنالیز دفاعی حقوقی از سانچی (سانچی قربانی سکوت)». در:
https://www.humanrightsatsea.org/sites/default/files/media-files/2021-12/20180106-News-Article-Hajar-Hejazi-Sanchi-Tanker-Collision.pdf (10 آبان 1404)
دلاور، علیرضا (1403). الزامات زیست‌محیطی ناظر بر حمل دریایی نفت و فرآورده‌های نفتی در پرتو اسناد بین‌المللی. پایان‌نامة کارشناسی‌ارشد حقوق نفت‌وگاز، دانشگاه تهران.
دلاور، علیرضا؛ نفری، زهرا (1403). «نظام حقوقی تصادم‌های دریایی در پرتو اسناد بین‌المللی (مطالعة موردی سانچی)». دومین کنفرانس بین‌المللی علوم انسانی، علوم اجتماعی و حقوق. در: https://civilica.com/doc/1994443 ، (10 آبان 1404).
رضوی‌نژاد، سید محمدرضا (1401). «اصل پیشگیری در پرتو آرای زیست‌محیطی دیوان بین‌المللی دادگستری». پژوهش‌های حقوقی پژوهشکدة حقوق، ص175-141.   DOI: 10.48300/jlr.2021.284066.1639
قانون حفاظت از دریاها و رودخانه‌های قابل کشتیرانی ایران، مصوب 1389.
موسوی، سیدفضل‌الله؛ اسلامی شهربابکی، میترا (1402). «بررسی تطبیقی نظام حقوقی ایران با اسناد بین‌المللی در خصوص پیشگیری از آلودگی‌های ناشی از نفت‌وگاز». پژوهش‌نامة حقوق اسلامی، دورة 24، شمارة 4 (پیاپی 62)، ص908-883.DOI: 10.30497/law.2024.245178.3427
مولائی، آیت؛ لطفی، حسن (1398). «شکنندگی مرزها بین اصول احتیاط و پیشگیری». مجلة حقوقی بین‌المللی، دورة 36، شمارة 60، ص290-269.       
DOI: 10.22066/cilamag.2019.35085
References
Amendment to Regulation 43 (Annex I). IMO Res MEPC.256(67) (17 October 2014).
Anish (January 8, 2021). Single Hull Vs Double Hull Tankers. www.marineinsight.com, https://www.marineinsight.com/naval-architecture/single-hull-vs-double-hull-tankers/ (Accessed 3 September 2024).
Attard, David Joseph, et al. (2016). The IMLI Manual on International Maritime Law Volume III: Marine Environmental Law and Maritime Security Law. Oxford University Press, Vol. III. https://doi.org/10.1093/law/9780199683949.001.0001
Biglar, Fatemeh (2016). “Rights, Duties, and Responsibilities of the Member States under Annex I of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78): A Case Study of Iran”. Master’s Thesis in International Law, Payame Noor University, Tehran Province. [in Persian]
Birnie, Patricia W; Alan E. Boyle (2009). International Law and the Environment. Oxford: Oxford University Press. http://oceanlaw.ru/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/International-Law-and-the-Environment-Third-Edition-Patricia-Birnie.pdf
Butt, Nickie (2007). ‘‘The Impact of Cruise Ship Generated Waste on Home Ports and Ports of Call: A Study of Southampton’’. Marine Policy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2007.03.002
Crude Oil Washing, IMO.org. https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/Pages/Crude-Oil-Washing.aspx (Accessed 13 November 2024).    
Davey, D. (2021). “Problems Relating to the Inadequate Enforcement of MARPOL 73/78”. [LLM Thesis], Faculty of Law, School of Social Sciences (Háskóli Íslands). https://skemman.is/bitstream/1946/37309/1/LLM%20Final%20Thesis%20.pdf
Delavar, Alireza (2024). “Environmental Requirements Governing the Maritime Transport of Oil and Petroleum Products in Light of International Instruments”. master’s Thesis in Oil and Gas Law, University of Tehran, Tehran Province. [in Persian]
Delavar, Alireza; Nafari, Zahra (2024). “The Legal Regime of Maritime Collisions in Light of International Instruments (A Case Study of Sanchi)”. The 2nd International Conference on Humanities, Social Sciences, and Law. Available at: https://civilica.com/doc/1994443, (Accessed 01 November 2025) [in Persian]
DFREIGHT (2022). Shipping Crude Oil and Natural Gas: A Comprehensive Overview. https://www.dfreight.org/blog/shipping-crude-oil-and-natural-gas-an-overview/ (Accessed 3 September 2025).
Duvic-Paoli, Leslie-Anne (2018). The Prevention Principle in International Environmental Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ehlers, Peter (2024). “A Success Story? Fifty Years of MARPOL”. The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law. DOI: 10.1163/15718085-bja10194 
Griffin, Andrew. (1994). “Marpol 73/78 and Vessel Pollution: A Glass Half Full or Half Empty?”. Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, Vol 1 Issue 2, Indiana University School of Law.
 https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/ijgls/vol1/iss2/10
Guidelines for the Application of MARPOL Annex I Requirements to Floating Production, Storage and Offloading Facilities (FPSOs) and Floating Storage Units (FSUs), IMO Doc MEPC/Circ.406 (10 November 2003).
Hejazi, Seyyedeh Hajar (2017). “The First Legal Defense Analysis of Sanchi (Sanchi: The Victim of Silence)”.
     https://www.humanrightsatsea.org/sites/default/files/media-files/2021-12/20180106-News-Article-Hajar-Hejazi-Sanchi-Tanker-Collision.pdf, (Accessed 01 November 2025), [in Persian]
IMO Res MEPC.189(60).
IMO Res MEPC.256(67).
IMO Res MEPC.265(68).
IMO Res MEPC.312(74) (17 May 2019).
IMO Res MEPC.51(32).
International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters, IMO Res MSC.385(94) (21 November 2014) and Res MEPC.264(68) (15 May 2015) [Polar Code].
ITOPF (2024). “Oil tanker spill statistics 2023”. https://www.itopf.org/fileadmin/uploads/itopf/data/Documents/Company_Lit/Oil_Tanker_Spill_Statistics_2023
Karim, MS. (2010). “Implementation of the MARPOL Convention in Developing Countries”. Nordic Journal Int Law, DOI: 10.1163/157181010X12668401899110
Katriel, Statman (2014). “To Comply or Not to Comply?”. An Argument in Favor of Increasing Investigation and Enforcement of MARPOL Annex I Violations, 5 Wash. & Lee J. Energy.
    https://scholarlycommons.law.wlu.edu/jece/vol5/iss1/8
Khee, Alan; Tan, Jin (2006). Vessel Source Marine Pollution: The Law and Politics of International Regulation. Cambridge University Press. http://digitalcommons.mainelaw.maine.edu/oclj/vol12/iss2/7
Law on the Protection of Navigable Seas and Rivers of Iran, enacted in 2010[in Persian]
MARPOL, Annex I Reg 43, added by IMO Res MEPC.189(60) (25 March 2010).
Mattson, G. (2006). “MARPOL 73/78 and Annex I: An Assessment of Its Effectiveness”. Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy. DOI: 10.1080/13880290600728195
Molaei, Ayat; Lotfi, Hassan (2019). “The Fragility of Boundaries between the Principles of Precaution and Prevention”. International Law Journal, Vol. 36, No. 60, pp. 269-290. DOI: 10.22066/cilamag.2019.35085 [in Persian]
Mousavi, Fazlollah; Eslami Shahrebabaki, Mitra (2023). “A Comparative Study of the Iranian Legal System and International Instruments Regarding the Prevention of Oil and Gas Pollution”. Islamic Law Research Journal, Vol. 24, No. 4 (Issue 62), pp. 883-908. DOI: 10.30497/law.2024.245178.3427 [in Persian]
Peet G. (1992). “The MARPOL Convention: Implementation and effectiveness”. International Journal Estuarine Coastal Law. https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/ljmc7&div=48&id=&page=Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.8306163
R Michael; M’Gonigle; Mark W Zacher (1979). Pollution, Politics and International Law: Tankers at Sea. University of Californian of pollution from ships, 1973.
https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/KnowledgeCentre/IndexofIMOResolutions/MEPCDocuments/MEPC.14(20).pdf
Razavi-Nejad, Seyed Mohammad Reza (2022). “The Principle of Prevention in Light of the Environmental Jurisprudence of the International Court of Justice”. Legal Research Journal of the Research Institute for Law, pp. 141-175. DOI: 10.48300/jlr.2021.284066.1639 [in Persian]
Resolution MEPC 14(20). (Adoption of amendments to the annex of the protocol of 1978 relating to the international convention for the prevention.
Segregated ballast tanks. https://www.wartsila.com/encyclopedia/term/segregated-ballast-  tanks (Accessed 12 November 2024).
Single Hull Tanker Phase Out - Developments at IMO. https://www.steamshipmutual.com/publications/articles/articles/singhull_phaseout_imo0703 (Accessed 11 November 2024).
Stephen, Leahy (2019). “Exxon Valdez changed the oil industry forever – but new threats emerge”. National Geographic. www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/2019/03/exxon-valdez-changed-oil-industry-forever-new-threats-emerge (Accessed 12 November 2024).
Szepes, Mark (2013). “Marpol 73/78: The Challenges of Regulating Vessel-Source Oil Pollution”. Manchester Student Law Review. https://hummedia.manchester.ac.uk/schools/law/main/research/MSLR_Vol2_5(Szepes).pdf
Tan AK (2006). Vessel Source Marine Pollution: The Law and Politics of International Regulation. Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511494628
Tanker safety - preventing accidental pollution, IMO.org. https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Safety/Pages/OilTankers.aspx (Accessed 11 November 2024).
The International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships1973/78 (MARPOL).
The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil 1954 (OILPOL).
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982.
Theo Notteboom, Athanasios Pallis and Jean-Paul Rodrigue (2022). “Port Economics, Management and Policy”. New York: Routledge, 690 pages/ 218 illustrations. ISBN 9780367331559.
DOI: doi.org/10.4324/9780429318184
UNCTAD (2024). “Review of maritime transport 2024”. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/rmt2024overview_en.pdf
What are regulations regarding dedicated clean ballast tanks as per MARPOL 73/78?, https://marinegyaan.com/what-are-regulations-regarding-dedicated-clean-ballast-tanks-as-per-marpol-7378/ (Accessed 13 November 2024).
Journal Of Researches Energy Law Studies
Volume 10, Issue 2
March 2025
Pages 305-334

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics